plain sailing
Meaning: If something is plain sailing, it's very easy to do and there are no problems to overcome.
see eye to eye
Meaning: If you see eye to eye with someone, you totally agree with them about something.
wide of the mark
Meaning: If something is wide of the mark, it isn't true or accurate, or it misses the target.
keep abreast of
Meaning: If you keep abreast of something, you always know about the latest news and developments in relation to it.
a pain in the neck
Meaning: You can say someone is a pain in the neck if they annoy you, or something is a pain in the neck if you don't like doing it.
jump on the bandwagon
Meaning: If someone jumps on the bandwagon, they join a movement or follow a fashion that has recently become popular.
talk turkey
Meaning: If you talk turkey, you discuss something seriously, usually to do with business or money.
ahead of the game
Meaning: You are ahead of the game if you have an advantage over your competitors in any activity in which you try to do better than others, such as in business, academia, sports, etc.
back to square one
Meaning: If you have to go back to square one, you have to stop and start again, usually because something isn't working as well as expected.
eat your words
Meaning: If you eat your words, you admit that something you said was wrong.
I owe you one!
Meaning: You can say "I owe you one!" when someone has done something for you and you'd be happy to return the favour one day.
a one-track mind
Meaning: If someone has a one-track mind, they spend most of their time thinking about one subject.
It's written all over your face.
Meaning: If you say "it's written all over your face", you're saying that the expression on someone's face is showing their true feelings or thoughts.
kill the goose that lays the golden egg
Meaning: If you kill the goose that lays the golden egg, you destroy something that has made you a lot of money.
easy come, easy go
Meaning: You can say "easy come, easy go" to express the idea that if something comes to someone easily, such as money they get without working hard for it, they can lose it just as easily and it won't matter to them much.
one in a million
Meaning: If you say someone is "one in a million", you mean they're an exceptionally good person.
in the dark
Meaning: If you're in the dark about something, you don't know about it.
a chip off the old block
Meaning: Someone can be described as a chip off the old block if they are very similar in character to one of their parents, usually their father.
know your stuff
Meaning: If you know your stuff, you're very good at what you do, and you know a lot about it.
No way!
Meaning: You can say "No way!" when you want to strongly reject an offer, a request, or a suggestion.
zero tolerance
Meaning: If something is given zero tolerance, it won't be accepted even once.
take into account
Meaning: If you take something or someone into account, you consider them when making a decision or making plans.
come up trumps
Meaning: If you come up trumps, you succeed in something that you may not have been expected to succeed in.
Mishnaic Hebrew
Mishnaic Hebrew is any of the Hebrew dialects found in the Talmud, except for direct quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects can be further subdivided into Mishnaic Hebrew proper (also called Tannaitic Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Mishnaic Hebrew I), which was a spoken language, and Amoraic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a literary language only.
The Mishnaic Hebrew language or Early Rabbinic Hebrew language is one direct ancient descendant of Biblical Hebrew as preserved by the Jews after the Babylonian captivity, and definitively recorded by Jewish sages in writing the Mishnah and other contemporary documents. It was not used by the Samaritans, who preserved their own dialect, Samaritan Hebrew.
A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the halachic Midrashim (Sifra, Sifre, Mechilta etc.) and the expanded collection of Mishnahrelated material known as the Tosefta (אתפסות). The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere; the generic term for these passages is Baraitot. The dialect of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew.
Historical occurrence
Mishnaic Hebrew is found primarily from the 1st to the 4th centuries of the Christian Era, corresponding to the Roman period after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew, the dialect is represented by the bulk of the Mishnah (הנשמ, published around 200) and
the Tosefta within the Talmud, and by some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, notably the Copper Scroll, and the Bar Kokhba Letters. Dead Sea Scrolls Archaeologist Yigael Yadin mentions that 3 Bar Kokhba documents he and his team found at Nahal Hever are written in Mishnaic Hebrew. But Yadin mentions that it was Bar Kokhba who revived Hebrew language and made Hebrew the official language of the state during Bar Kokhba revolt (132135 AD). Yigael Yadin also noticed the shift from Aramaic to Hebrew during the time of Bar Kokhba revolt—in his book Bar Kokhba: The Rediscovery of the Legendary Hero of the Last Jewish Revolt Against Imperial Rome, Yadin notes, "It is interesting that the earlier documents are written in Aramaic while the later ones are in Hebrew. Possibly the change was made by a special decree of Bar Kokhba who wanted to restore Hebrew as the official language of the state" (page 181). In Book "A Roadmap to the Heavens: An Anthropological Study of Hegemony among Priests, Sages, and Laymen (Judaism and Jewish Life)" by Sigalit BenZion (Page 155), Yadin remarked: "it seems that this change came as a result of the order that was given by Bar Kokhba, who wanted to revive the Hebrew language and make it the official language of the state."
Within a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew began to fall into disuse as a spoken language. The Babylonian Gemara (ארמג, circa 500), as well as the earlier socalled Jerusalem Talmud published between 350 and 400, generally comment on the Mishnah and Baraitot in Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Amoraic Hebrew, which sometimes occurs in the Gemara text.
Mishnaic Hebrew developed under the profound influence of spoken Aramaic in all spheres of language, including phonology, morphology, syntax and vocabulary.
Phonetics
Many of the characteristic features of Mishnaic Hebrew pronunciation may well have been found already in the period of Late Biblical Hebrew. A notable characteristic distinguishing it from Biblical Hebrew of the classical period is the spirantization of postvocalic stops (b, g, d, p, t, k), which it has in common with Aramaic.
A new characteristic is that final /m/ is often replaced with final /n/ in the Mishna (see Bava Kama 1:4, "ןידעומ"), but only in agreement morphemes. Perhaps the final nasal consonant in these morphemes was not pronounced, and instead the vowel previous to it was nasalized. Alternatively, the agreement morphemes may have changed under the influence of Aramaic.
Also, some surviving manuscripts of the Mishna confuse guttural consonants, especially (א) (a glottal stop) and 'ayin (ע) (a voiced pharyngeal fricative). That could be a sign that they were pronounced the same in Mishnaic Hebrew.
Grammar
The grammar of Mishnaic Hebrew displays various changes from Biblical Hebrew, of which some appear already in the Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some, but not all, are retained in Modern Hebrew.
For the expression of possession, Mishnaic Hebrew mostly replaces the Biblical Hebrew status constructus with analytic constructions involving לש 'of'.
Missing in Mishnaic Hebrew is the conversive vav.
Past is expressed using the same form as in Modern Hebrew. For example (Pirkei Avoth 1:1): "לביק השמ יניסמ הרות". ("Moses received the Torah from Sinai".)
Continuous past is expressed using the present tense of to be, unlike Biblical but like Modern Hebrew. For example (Pirkei Avoth 1:2): "רמוא היה אוה" ("He often said".)
Present is expressed using the same form as in Modern Hebrew, i.e. using the participle (ינוניב). For example (Pirkei Avoth 1:2): "דמוע םלועה םירבד השולש לע". ("The world is sustained by three things", lit. "On three things the world stands")
Future can be expressed using דיתע + infinitive. For example (Pirkei Avoth 3:1): "ןיד ןתיל דיתע התא ימ ינפלו ןובשחו". However, unlike Modern Hebrew, but like contemporary Aramaic, the present active participle can also express the future. It mostly replaces the imperfect (prefixed) form in that function.
The imperfect (prefixed) form, which is used for the future in modern Hebrew, expresses an imperative (order), volition or similar meanings in Mishnaic Hebrew. For example, (Pirkei Avoth 1:3): ",רמוא היה אוה ברה תא ןישמשמה םידבעכ ויהת לא" ("He would say, don't be like slaves serving the master...", lit. "...you will not be..."). In a sense, one could say that the form pertains to the future in Mishnaic Hebrew as well, but it invariably has a modal (imperative, volitional, etc.) aspect in the main clause.
take up
Meaning: to fill an area of space or a period of time
run away
Meaning: If children or teenagers run away, they leave home without telling their parents or guardians.
knock off
Meaning: to stop work for the day
let out
Meaning: to make a particular sound or noise
take down
Meaning: to remove something that's fixed to a wall, like a picture or a poster
pass on
Meaning: If you pass something on, you give it to another person after receiving it yourself.
allude to
Meaning: to mention or refer to something or someone in an indirect way
think up
Meaning: to use one's imagination to come up with something like an excuse, a name, a plan, or a story
print out
Meaning: to make a printed copy of a document
rough up
Meaning: to physically attack someone, usually to intimidate or make them afraid rather than to seriously hurt them
revert to
Meaning: to go back to a previous way of behaving, or an old way of doing things
get off
Meaning: to leave a means of transport such as a bus or a train
hang around
Meaning: to spend time somewhere without doing anything useful
urge on
Meaning: If you urge somebody on, you encourage them to continue trying to do something.
make up
Meaning: If you make up with someone, you become friends again after having an argument or a disagreement with them.
hang on
Meaning: If someone tells you to hang on, they want you to wait for a moment.
hook up
Meaning: If you hook up things like computers and their peripherals, or the components of a home theatre, you connect them with cables.
knock off
Meaning: to steal something
see off
Meaning: If you see somebody off, you go to the place from where they're beginning a journey, like an airport or a railway station, and wish them well as they leave.
knock down
Meaning: If something like a building or a wall is knocked down, it is destroyed on purpose.
let out
Meaning: to allow somebody or something to leave a place
pull up
Meaning: If a vehicle such as a car or a taxi pulls up, it stops.
speak up
Meaning: to speak louder
hold on
Meaning: to wait for a short time
eat up
Meaning: to eat all or most of something
jack up
Meaning: to increase the price or the cost of something by a large amount
go together
Meaning: If two things go together, they look good together or they harmonize.
bring out
Meaning: to release a new product
take back
Meaning: If a store takes back something they've sold, they allow the buyer to return it for a refund, or exchange it.
cheer on
Meaning: to shout loudly to encourage someone, especially someone who's playing sport or competing in a race
fall apart
Meaning: If something falls apart, it breaks into pieces or parts start falling off.
let in
Meaning: If you let someone in, you allow them to enter a room or a building.
note down
Meaning: If you note down something, you write it on a piece of paper or in a notebook.
expose to
Meaning: If you expose someone to something, you introduce them to something they might not otherwise see or experience.
sit through
Meaning: If you sit through something like a long speech or a boring show, you wait until it's over before leaving, even though you're not enjoying it.
join with
Meaning: If you join with someone or something to do something, you do it together.
hand over
Meaning: If you hand something over, you give it to someone who has demanded it.
stop over
Meaning: to stop at a place and stay there for one or two days while on your way to somewhere else
Medieval Hebrew has many features that distinguish it from older forms of Hebrew. These affect grammar, syntax, sentence structure, and also include a wide variety of new lexical items, which are usually based on older forms.
In the Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians of Classical Arabic. Important Hebrew grammarians were Judah ben David Hayyuj and Jonah ibn Janah. A great deal of poetry was written, by poets such as Dunash ben Labrat, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah haLevi, David Hakohen and the two Ibn Ezras, in a "purified" Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative metres (see piyyut). This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets.
he need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from Classical Greek and Medieval Arabic motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. Many have direct parallels in medieval Arabic. The Ibn Tibbon family, and especially Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon were personally responsible for the creation of much of this form of Hebrew, which they employed in their translations of scientific materials from the Arabic. At that time, original Jewish philosophical works were usually written in Arabic, but as time went on, this form of Hebrew was used for many original compositions as well.
Another important influence was Maimonides, who developed a simple style based on Mishnaic Hebrew for use in his law code, the Mishneh Torah. Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and the Aramaized Rabbinic Hebrew of the Talmud.
By late 12th and early 13th centuries the cultural center of Mediterranean Jewry was transferred from an Islamic context to Christian lands. The written Hebrew used in Northern Spain, Provence (a term for all of the South of France) and Italy was increasingly influenced by Latin, particularly in philosophical writings, and also by different vernaculars (Provençal, Italian, etc.). In Italy we witness the flourishing of a new
genre, ItalianHebrew philosophical lexicons. The Italian of these lexicons was generally written in Hebrew characters and are a useful source for the knowledge of Scholastic philosophy among Jews. One of the earliest lexicons was that by Moses b. Shlomo of Salerno, who died in the late 13th. century; it was meant to clarify terms that appear in his commentary on Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed. Moses of Salerno's glossary was edited by Giuseppe Sermoneta in 1969. There are also glossaries associated with Jewish savants who befriended Pico della Mirandola. Moses of Salerno's commentary on the Guide also contains Italian translations of technical terms, which brings the Guide's Islamicinfluenced philosophical system into confrontation with 13thcentury Italian scholasticism.
Hebrew was also used as a language of communication among Jews from different countries, particularly for the purpose of international trade.
Mention should also be made of the letters preserved in the Cairo geniza, which reflect the Arabic influenced Hebrew of medieval Egyptian Jewry. The Arabic terms and syntax that appear in the letters constitute a significant source for the documentation of spoken medieval Arabic, since Jews in Islamic lands tended to use colloquial Arabic in writing rather than classical Arabic, which is the Arabic that appears in Arabic medieval sources.
برای شناخت معنی شناسی باید ابتدا بدانیم مطالعه علمی چیست ؟
زبان شناسان از هر منظری که به زبان بنگرند در این نکته متفق القول اند که مطالعه علمی در این دانش توصیف پدیده های زبانی در چار چوب یک نظام بدون هر پیش انگاری است . این توصیف چنان باید باشد ه بتوان صحت و سقم آن را محک زد.
شاخه های معنی شناسی:
1- معنی شناسی فلسفی : بخشی از مطالعه فلسفی زبان را تشکیل میدهد . این گونه معنی شناسی سابقه طولانی دارد و برحسب منابع موجود به قرن 4 ه.ق و آرای افلاطون در رساله های کراتیلوس و لاخس باز میگردد.
2- معنی شناسی منطقی : بخشی از منطق ریاضی است و بر حسب دیدگاه های بولزانو- مزگه – تاسکی – گودل – زبان را ابزاری برای صحبت در باره جهاز خارج از زبان در نظر میگیرد و سعی بر ان است با توجه به موقعیت جهان خارج صحت و سقم جملات زبان تعیین شود.( رهیافتی اجاعی )
3- معنی شناسی زبانی : این د انش زبان شناسی نخستین بار از سوی (برال) معرفی شد . در معنی شناسی زبانی توجه معطوف بر خود زبان است و با مطالعه معنی به دنبال کشف چگونگی عملکرد ذهن انسان در درک معنی از طریق زبان است و در اصل باز نودهای ذهن آدمی را باز می کارد . این شیوه را رهیافتی باز نمودی مینامند. کدام معنی ؟ باید تکلیف خواننده در این که در معنی شناسی به کدام معنی یا معانی توجه بشود روشن باشد فرض کنید شخصی که زبان فارسی را به طور کامل بلد نیست از ما بپرسد صندلی چیست؟ و ما هم زبانی جز زبان فارسی بلد نیستیم در این شرایط دو امکان برای توضیح معنی صندلی پیش رو خواهیم داشت.1- استفاده از زبان 2- استفاده از جهان خارج از زبان ما میتوانیم با استفاده از واژه های دیگری از زبان فارسی معنی صندلی را توضیح د هیم . همین کار در فرهنگی لغت یک زبانی نیز انجام میشود. یعنی به کمک نشانه های دیگر سعی میکنند تا معنی نشانه ای را توضیح دهند ولی ما میتوانیم از جهان خارج از زبان نیز استفاده کنیم . مثلا"تصویر یک صندلی را بکشیم و به این شخص نشان دهیم ، یا صندلی را از نزدیک معرفی کنیم ، یا با دست در فضا شکل صندلی را ترسیم کنیم و ادای این را در آوریمکه مثلا روی صندلی می نشینیم. ولی همیشه مسئله به این سادگی نیست . مثلا" اگر کسی بپرسد اژدها چیست؟ امکان اشاره به چیزی که در جهان خارج برای ما وجود نخواهد داشت البته میتوانیم برایش مار بزرگی نقاشی کنیم که از دهانش آتش در می آید و بال هم دارد. ولی اگر بپرسد : وجدان چیست؟ در چنین شرایطی مجبوریم فقط از زبان استفاده کنیم زیرا نه تصویری از وجدان نمی توان کشید و نه به چیزی در جهان خارج اشاره کرد.
معانی معنی شناسی:
1- معنی درون زبانی
2- معنی برون زبانی چند نوع دیگر معنی ها و معنی که به کمک علامت نشان میدهیم:
1- چراغ قرمز به معنی ایست 2- حلقه در انگشت به معنی ازدواج کرده 3- دود به معنی آتش 4- عطسه به معنی صبر 5- چه قدر تشنه ام به معنی یک لیوان آب میخواهم این معنی ها تمامی ندارد و هر چیزی ، هر واژه ای و هر جمله ای معانی مختلفی دارد.
ما چگونه میتوانیم با هم ارتباط ایجاد کنیم ؟ موقعیت ها ، سنت ها ، روابط ، شرایط و آداب و رسوم و حتی خاطرات معانی را تغییر می دهد.
یک گل سرخ در گل فروشی همان گل سرخ است اما اگر به کسی تقدیم شودکه فقط یک گل سرخ نمیباشد.
در اینجا کدام معنی ( معنی شناسی ) مطرح میگردد؟ آنچه در محدوده دانش معنی شناسی مورد مطالعه قرار میگیرد صرفا معنی درون زبانی است و زبان نیز در این محدوده همانا زبان خودکار است یعنی زبانی که به صورت روزمره برای ایجاد ارتباط همگانی به کار میرود پس: درمعنی شناسی به آن معانی ای توجه میگردد که بتوان از درون زبان دریافت و نیازی به داشتن اطلاعاتی خارج از زبان نباشد. اگر از متخصص آوا شناسی بپرسیم که کدام واحد یا واحدهای زبان را مورد نظر دارد پس جواب میدهد: آوا اگر از متخصص صرف در مورد همین واحدها پرس و جو کنیم پاسخ میدهد:تکواژ و واژه . متخصص واج شناسی با گفتن واج و متخصص نحو با گفتن جمله تکلیف کار را معلوم میکند. ولی متخصص معنی شناسی با کدام واحد ها سر و کار دارد؟ مسلما" تکواژ به عنوان کوچکترین واحد معنی دار زبان یکی از واحد های کار اوست و حاصل جمع معنی آنها میتواند معنی واژه یا جمله را روشن کند. مثال : سردرد – کتابخانه – من رفتم با دانستن معنی های تکواژ سر و درد میتوان معنی سردرد را حدس زد.
پس معنی شناسی به واحد های بزرگتر از تکواژ یعنی واژه نیازمند است تا بتواند معنی گاوصندوق – چشم زخم – نمک گیر در این مثال ها معنی تکواژ ما را به معنی واژه نمیرساند عامل دیگری که در معنی دخالت دارد : تکیه کرم با تکیه بر هجای دوم ---- به معنای بخشش کرم با تکیه بر هجای اول ---- به معنای کر هستم با تغییر جایگاه تکیه معنی تکواژ یا واژه تغییر میکند
مثال : مردی – سردست – جا افتاده
تغییرجایگاه تکیه در جمله هم همین نقش را ایفا میکند:
کامبیز – میخواست – شیرینی – بخره
1- کسی غیر از کامبیز نمی خواست شیرینی بخرد.
2- کامبیز نمیخواست چیزی دیگر غیر از شیرینی بخرد.
3- کامبیز کار دیگری نمیخواست انجام دهد مگر خریدن شیرینی.
4- تکیه بر ( می ) می خواست ----- کامبیز آخر شیرینی نخرید.
نقش آهنگ نیز در استنباط معانی مختلف کمتر از نقش تکیه نیست. عوامل دیگر در تغییر معنی و استنباط معنی:
1- ریتم بخشیدن به جمله 2- سرعت در گفتار 3- شدت صدا عوامل غیر زبانی: چشمک زدن ، خندیدن ، کج نگاه داشتن سر ، بالا انداختن ابرو
واحد های مطالعه معنی:
1- واحد های زیر زنجیری (تکیه - آهنگ – صدا )
2- واحدهای پیرا زبانی (شدت صدا – سرعت در گفتار)
3- واحدهای برون زبانی (حرکات بدن)
پس میتوان گفت: تحلیل معنی در سطح واژه و تحلیل معنی در سطح جمله را هدف اصلی معنی شناسی زبانی در نظر گرفت. معنی شناسی و نشانه شناسی معنی شناسی را مطالعه انتقال معنی از طریق زبان می دانیم اما در این میان دانش عامی وجود دارد که معنی شناسی تنها بخشی از آن را تشکیل میدهد که نشانه شناسی است . نشانه شناسی کلا دانش درک معنی است و مسلما" معنی زبان شناسی بخش کوچکی از آن است.
طبقه بندی نشانه شناسی از دیدگاه پیرس
1- شمایل : نشانه ای که بین صورت و معنی اش نوعی شباهت صوری وجود دارد که نشانه تصویری هم نام دارد. مثلا" نقاشی یک صورت که به صاحب آن صورت دلالت دارد .
2- نمایه : نشانه ای که میان صورت و معنی اش نوعی رابطه علی وجود دارد که نشانه طبیعی هم نام دارد . مانند : دود که نشانه آتش است یا حرارت بالا که نشانه تب است.
3- نماد : نشانه ای که میان صورت و معنی اش رابططه قراردادی وجود دارد. مانند : چراغ قرمز به معنی ایست . نشانه های زبانی به دلیل ماهیت قراردادی شان بخشی از نمادها را تشکیل می دهد. جایگاه معنی شناسی در زبان شناسی الگوهایی برای زبان شناسی معرفی میگردد که الگویی را برای دستور در نظر میگیرند که از سه بخش واج ، نحو و معنی شناسی تشکیل میشود. این نگرش مبتنی بر این اعتقادات که انسان ها از آواها برای انتقال معنی استفاده می کنند پس زبان با آوا آغاز و با معنی ختم می شود.
نشانه های زبانی : در بیان واژه ها هر کداممان به هنگام تلفظ از نظر فیزیکی به نحو قابل ملاحظه ای با آواهای تولیدی دیگران متفاوت خواهد بود. در کلمه رود ، تلفظ یکسان به نظر میرسد اما کلمه رود به نظر زود - دود - روز - رد – راد – روده و ..... تبدیل شود میتوان گفت : (صوت ، پدیده ای فیزیکی است درحالی که دال یا تصور صوتی پدیده ای ذهنی است و به نظام زبان تعلق دارد.)
دال صوت نیست و مدلول چیزی نیست که در جهان خارج از زبان وجود داشته باشد و هر دوپدیده های ذهنی هستند و به نظام زبان تعلق دارند (طرح سوسور)
انواع زبان:
1- زبان فردی: زبانی که فردی است زیرا بر حسب انتخاب های خودمان از جهان خارج شکل گرفته نام برادر من هرفر است این کلمه (هرفر) برای من و شما معنای متفاوتی دارد.
2- زبان اجتماعی: زبانی که برای ایجاد ارتباط به کار می رود مانند من می پرسم که: جا کلیدی ام را گم کرده ام آیا آن را ندیده اید؟ این پرسش برای همه معلوم است.